Public education is an important component of this management measure. The provision of information regarding the environmental impacts of common household activities can produce long-term shifts in behavior and may result in significant reductions in household-generated pollutants. School curricula on watershed protection, including nonpoint pollution control, have been developed for elementary and secondary school education programs. An example is the program developed by the Washington State Office of Environmental Education (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1989). Incorporating such programs into regular school curricula is an effective way to educate youth about the importance of environmentally conscious behavior, which in turn can help reduce the need for and cost of technology-based pollution control.

Florida developed a comprehensive Statewide plan for environmental education coordinated by its Council on Comprehensive Environmental Education to be implemented through formal and informal education programs and State agency programs. All teachers receive the training, as well as State agency personnel and school children in grades kindergarten through 12 (Florida Council on Comprehensive Environmental Education, 1987).

Public participation is an effective means of educating the public and is also necessary for successfully creating and implementing a nonpoint pollution control plan. Public involvement should be encouraged during the planning process through attendance at meetings, workshops, and private or group consultations, and by encouraging the public to comment on planning documents. Support for the documents and the plans being developed is fostered through public involvement. Newsletters are an effective means of keeping the public informed of what planning steps are being taken and how the public can become and stay involved. Metropolitan Seattle has printed an educational brochure concerning waste oil disposal in six languages in order to reach a wider audience (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992).

Recognizing the potential impacts for environmental degradation from the improper disposal of hazardous household materials and chemicals, many communities have implemented programs to collect these chemicals. There has been an exponential growth in the number of such collection programs since the early 1980s. Two programs were in place in 1980; 822 were in place in 1990. The most common type of collection system is a 1-day event at a temporary site (often referred to as an Amnesty Day). More local governments are beginning to sponsor these programs several times a year, and many communities are establishing permanent programs, including retail store drop-off programs, curbside collection, and mobile permanent facilities (Duxbury, 1990). Table 4-29 (20k) summarizes the cost and effectiveness of some household chemical collection programs.

In spite of relatively low participation rates, collection programs can have a significant impact on the amount of hazardous chemicals and materials entering the waste stream. It has been estimated that the amount of hazardous chemicals collected in States having approved coastal management programs was approximately 51,000 drums, or 280,500 gallons, in 1990 (extrapolated from Duxbury, 1990).

Household hazardous chemical (HHC) collection programs already exist in many counties throughout the United States. Specific days are usually designated as drop-off days and are advertised through television, newspapers, flyers, and radio. In Arlington County, Virginia, collection during the week is by appointment with a water pollution chemist employed by the county and on one Saturday a month. Other HHC collection programs have once-a-week or once-a-month collection days, and some programs have a single day set aside each year for all HHC collection for the county or region. The waste collected by these programs is usually disposed of by a licensed HHC contractor. Table 4-29 (20k) presents program descriptions, effectiveness, and cost information for representative HHC collection programs. Many service stations currently provide used oil and antifreeze recycling facilities for "do-it-yourselfers" to encourage environmentally sound disposal.

The care of landscaped areas can contribute significantly to NPS pollutant loadings. Results of a telephone survey conducted in 1982 by the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University showed that only 12 to 15 percent of home lawns in Virginia were being managed properly. The majority of homeowners preferred to do their own lawn work; only 8 to 10 percent of the households used commercial lawn care companies. A similar survey conducted on Long Island concluded that in affluent neighborhoods, 72 percent of the respondents used a lawn care service; in the least affluent neighborhoods, no one subscribed to commercial lawn care (Cornell Water Resources Institute, 1985). The extent of nonpoint source pollution from fertilizer application is site-specific and depends on a number of factors, including soil type, application rate, type of fertilizer, precipitation and watering amount, and socioeconomic status of residents. Because most people are not trained in proper fertilization and maintenance application, homeowner lawn care may result in significant amounts of nonpoint source pollution.

To significantly decrease homeowners' pesticide and fertilizer loadings requires a broad-based educational effort. The State Cooperative Extension Service (CES) is one educational vehicle; however, the CES reaches only a small percentage of the population. Mass media approaches are generally the most effective way to reach a large part of the population, though some other possibilities are discussed below (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1991). The following practices are part of proper lawn management and landscaping.

• Proper pesticide and herbicide use, and reduced applications

  While few studies have been conducted to correlate pesticide and herbicide use with adverse effects on marine water quality, the magnitude of potential impacts can be inferred from incidents such as the extensive ground-water contamination in counties bordering the Puget Sound following widespread use of the pesticide ethylene dibromide (EDB) (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1989). Estimates of pesticide use in the Puget Sound area reveal that 20 percent of the volume of pesticides applied is from residential sources and that these applications are typically in excess of recommended amounts or are too concentrated (Puget Sound Water Quality Authority, 1991).

  Maintaining a buffer between surface water and areas treated with pesticides is one method to increase the transport distance and reduce the potential for offsite movement of toxics. Selection of less toxic, mobile, and persistent chemicals with greater selective control of pests is encouraged (Spectrum Research, 1990).

• Reduced fertilizer applications and proper application timing

  Lawn fertilization has been identified as a source of excess nitrogen and phosphorus loadings that may lead to eutrophication. A modeling study of urban runoff pollution conducted in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Washington, DC, and Virginia by Cohn-Lee and Cameron (1991) estimated that the nonpoint source loadings of nutrients were equal to or greater than loadings discharged from POTWs and industries in the Chesapeake Bay area.

  Ground-water contamination also may be of concern especially where interflow exists between surface waters and ground waters. Schultz (1989) found that over 50 percent of the nitrogen in fertilizer leaches from a lawn when improperly applied. NVSWCD et al. (1991) found that up to two-thirds less fertilizer can be applied than is typically recommended by manufacturers. The use of slow-release forms of nitrogen and proper watering may also decrease nonpoint source pollution loadings (Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, 1978).

• Limited lawn watering

  Nonpoint source runoff from lawns can be reduced by employing efficient watering techniques. Overwatering can increase nitrogen loss 5 to 11 times the amount lost when proper watering strategies are used (Morton et al., 1988).

  Soaker hoses and trickle or drip irrigation systems are an alternative to sprinkler systems. These types of systems deliver water at lower rates, which can increase the volume infiltrated, conserve water, and avoid runoff that can be associated with improperly operated sprinkler systems.

• Use of minimum maintenance/minimum disturbance and IPM methods

  Minimum maintenance/minimum disturbance policies and strategies can effectively reduce land disturbance and associated soil loss and can reduce fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide loadings. Where new development is occurring, community standards that limit the use of fertilizers or require commercial lawn care companies to use low-impact lawn care practices can decrease NPS loadings. Such practices can be promoted through public education programs for both new and existing developments.

  Effective use of IPM strategies can further reduce nonpoint source loadings. Regional soil conservation services, agricultural extension offices, local conservation districts, or the U.S. Department of Agriculture are good sources of information on IPM. A study in Maryland on IPM for street and landscape trees in a planned suburban community demonstrated that pesticide use could be reduced by 79 to 87 percent when spot application techniques were substituted for cover spray techniques. An average annual cost savings of 22 percent also resulted from the program.

  Effective IPM Strategies include (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992):

  • Use of natural predators and pathogens;
  • Mechanical control;
  • Use of native and resistant plantings;
  • Maintainenance of proper growing conditions;
  • Removal of or substitutions for less-favored pest habitat;
  • Timing annual crops to avoid pests;
  • Localized use of appropriate chemicals as a last alternative.

• Xeriscaping

  Xeriscaping, creative landscaping for decreased water, energy, and pesticide/fertilizer inputs, can be used to reduce urban runoff and minimize the application of lawn care products that may adversely impact coastal waters. The use of xeriscaping practices can reduce required lawn maintenance up to 50 percent and reduce watering requirements by 60 percent (Clemson University, 1991). Florida has passed legislation requiring xeriscaping on the grounds of all State buildings. Several other States, including New Jersey and California, actively support xeriscaping efforts. A more detailed discussion of xeriscaping is in Section II.C of this chapter.

• Reduced runoff potential

  Rainwater from roofs can be infiltrated into the ground in gravel-filled trenches in well-drained soils or collected in rain barrels for later irrigation. Wood decking or brick pavers allow greater infiltration than do solid concrete structures. Landscape terracing reduces runoff and erosion when gardening on slopes (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992).

• Training, certification, and licensing programs for landscaping and lawn care professionals

  Training, certification, and licensing programs are an effective method to educate lawn care professionals about potential nonpoint pollution problems associated with fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide applications. The State Cooperative Extension Service commonly provides these services. Trained lawn care professional can also help educate the general public about the advantages of low-input approaches.

Home composting promotes onsite recycling of plant nutrients contained in yard trimmings and reduces the potential for nutrients to enter surface waters. Unlike most commercial fertilizers, compost releases nutrients slowly and is a source of trace metals (Hansen and Mancl, 1988). When added as an amendment to lawn or garden soils, compost increases the organic content of the soil, which increases infiltration, reduces runoff, and decreases the need for watering. Sediment and bound nutrients in soils with high organic content are less mobile and less likely to migrate from the site. Compost applications may also result in increased plant health and vigor, allowing for the reduced use of pesticides (Logsdon, 1990).

Home composting programs may result in municipal cost savings. An average suburban yard generates up to 1,500 pounds of yard trimmings per year, most of which is usually landfilled (McNelly, undated). Homeowners should be encouraged to place compost piles or bins away from streams and roadways that may serve as conveyances of leached nutrients. Recycling of grass clippings and mulched leaves should also be encouraged through education programs. The retention of grass clippings and mulched leaves reduces the need for supplemental water and fertilizer inputs.

Suggested backyard composting programs include the following:

• Provide compost bins free or at cost.
• Create pamphlets explaining benefits and methods.
• Start a "Master Composter" program in which graduates receive free equipment and conduct their own workshops.
• Provide credits on waste removal fees to people who compost yard wastes.

Improperly disposed household cleaners containing nonbiodegradable chemicals have the potential to contaminate surface waters and ground water. OSDS systems may also be adversely impacted by these substances (PSWQA, 1989). The use of nontoxic, biodegradable alternatives, which quickly break down, should be encouraged through public education efforts (Reef Relief, 1992).

The Soil Conservation Service in the Nassau-Suffolk region of New York collected data indicating that domestic animals contribute BOD, COD, bacteria, nitrogen, and phosphorus to ground water and surface waters (Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, 1978). Urban runoff containing pet excrement has been found to be responsible for numerous shellfish bed closures in New York and has been implicated in shellfish bed closures in Massachusetts (George Huefelder, personal communication, 1992; Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, 1978). In New York, the large populations of semi-wild Pekin ducks contribute heavily to water quality problems. A study in Massachusetts found that dog droppings alone were significant enough to cause shellfish bed closures.

Curb laws, requiring that dogs be walked close to street curbs so they will defecate on the streets near curbs, are intended to ensure that street sweeping operations collect the droppings and prevent them from entering runoff. However, traditional street sweeping has been found to be an ineffective means for controlling fines and soluble NPS pollution and the dog droppings are more often swept into sewers and delivered to bays and estuaries during rain storms (Long Island Regional Planning Board, 1982; 1984; Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board, 1978). Curbing ordinances should therefore be repealed where they are in effect, and laws requiring pet owners to clean up after their pets when they are walked in public areas and to dispose of the droppings properly should be enacted.

Proper cleanup and disposal of canine fecal material and discouragement of public feeding of waterfowl are two ways of potentially controlling the adverse impacts of animal droppings. The following examples from the Long Island Regional Planning Board (1984) illustrate controls for NPS pollution from animal droppings.

Control of NPS pollution from dogs:

• Enactment of "pooper-scooper" laws requiring the removal and proper disposal of dog feces on public property.
• Enforcement of existing "pooper-scooper" and leash laws should be improved in priority target areas where animal feces are known to be an NPS pollution problem.

• Instituting zoning ordinances to control the keeping of horses. These ordinances should include:
  • Minimum acreage requirements per horse;
  • Specifying areas where horse waste may be stored; and
  • Designated areas where horses may be kept.

• Limiting the density of horses in deep aquifer recharge areas, in selected shallow aquifer recharge areas, in areas immediately adjacent to surface waters, and where slopes are greater than 5 percent.

• The Cooperative Extension Service and similar agencies should be encouraged to develop and distribute informational material on all aspects of animal waste problems.

The following actions can be used to help control the problem of pet excrement:

• Pass regulations controlling the disposal of excrement from domestic animals;
• Enact domestic animal clean-up regulations; and
• Require commercial domestic animal operations (e.g., pet stores, kennels) to implement BMPs for the control and proper disposal of animal excrement.

Storm drain stenciling programs can be effective tools to reduce illegal dumping of litter, leaves, and toxic substances down urban runoff drainage systems. These programs also serve as educational reminders to the public that such storm drains often discharge untreated runoff directly to coastal waters.

A successful program was initiated in Anne Arundel County, Maryland. The program was implemented by volunteers to prevent dumping of harmful material into storm drains that ultimately discharge to the Chesapeake Bay. The county's only involvement has been to publicize the program and provide stencils and painting materials.

Approximately 60 to 70 percent of all communities in the county have participated. Several other counties around the Chesapeake Bay have inquired about the program. Data on effectiveness in terms of pounds of pollutant removed were not available; however, an informal survey that occurred after the program was implemented revealed that there is increased public understanding that storm drains should not be used for disposal of hazardous materials and dumping has decreased. Costs were nominal ($7.00 per stencil kit, including paint and brushes; the average neighborhood cost was $40.00). There is a similar program in place in Puget Sound, Washington. The total cost of implementing the stenciling program for the Sound was $2,644.39, including materials and labor. This practice is currently being used in other States and localities, including the Indian River Lagoon, Florida, drainage basin.

Parking lot runoff accounts for a significant percentage of nonpoint source pollution in commercial areas, depending on the proportion of building size to parking lot size. Sweeping is a viable method of reducing this runoff from paved areas. If a lot is rectangular and has no parking bumpers or medians dividing it, the job is easier and less expensive. As indicated in the case study, a computer model proved to be a useful tool in evaluating the effectiveness of pavement sweeping as a method to control one source of nonpoint pollution (Broward County Planning Council, 1982).

CASE STUDY - FORT LAUDERDALE, FLORIDA

Equipment types commonly used for street sweeping include abrasive brush and vacuum device sweepers. Both abrasive brush and vacuum sweepers have been shown to be generally inefficient at picking up fine solids of less than 43 microns. Although vacuum sweepers are more effective at removing fine particulates than brush sweepers, they are still generally considered to be inefficient. A newly developed helical brush sweeper that incorporates a steel brush with vacuum has been shown to be more effective at removing fine solids and is currently being evaluated. Although currently used sweeper technologies have been shown to be inefficient at removing fine particulates, their use in conjunction with other BMPs that are effective in trapping fine solids could improve downstream water quality (NVPDC, 1987).

Vegetated areas/grassed swales are another method commonly used to reduce pollutant loadings from pavement runoff. These areas can be designed to accept runoff with relatively high oil and grease concentrations from parking lots. Percolation through soil and underlying layers typically results in hydrocarbon filtration and adsorption, and degradation by naturally occurring soil bacteria.

The opportunities for and advantages of pollution prevention practices vary from industry to industry, location to location, and activity to activity. Therefore, it is important to develop pollution prevention programs tailored specifically to an activity or site. Pollution prevention assessments on a site-by-site basis reduce some wastes and possibly eliminate the generation of other wastes. Such assessments are often necessary for successful pollution prevention programs (DOI, 1991).

States should promote and/or provide pollution prevention training and on-site assessments of individual facilities to help reduce the amount of hazardous wastes entering the environment from households and commercial facilities. A typical assessment for a facility will identify the types of waste produced, appropriate disposal methods and sites, and source reduction techniques. An education program to instruct personnel about proper materials handling and waste reduction strategies is also recommended.

The Alachua County, Florida, Office of Environmental Protection produced a handbook of BMPs to be applied in 12 separate commercial operations. Many of the BMPs are common to more than one type of operation, though specifics are mentioned for each category of activities. The 12 operations mentioned are small and large mechanical repair, dry cleaning, junk yards, photo processing, print and silk screening, machine shops and airport maintenance, boat manufacturing and repair, concrete and mining, agricultural, paint manufacturers and distributors, and plastic manufacturers (Alachua County Office of Environmental Protection, 1991).

The Santa Clara Valley Nonpoint Source Pollution Control Program and the San Jose Office of Environmental Management produced a handbook of BMPs for automobile service stations (Santa Clara Valley Water Control District, 1992). The handbook describes 18 BMPs that can be used to control onsite nonpoint source pollutants. Many of these BMPs require little or no investment for implementation. Most of the BMPs rely on education-induced behavior changes to minimize spills and disposal of chemicals and wastewaters down storm drains. Recycling, spill prevention and response plans, and proper material storage are also covered.

The City of Lacy, Washington, developed guidelines to control NPS pollution impacts from service stations and automotive repair facilities on Puget Sound. These include:

• Straining used solvents and paint thinner for reuse;
• Recycling antifreeze, oil, metal chips, and batteries;
• Properly disposing of wastes, including oils, machine-tool coolant, and batteries;
• Using dry floor cleaners, such as kitty litter or vermiculite; and
• Limiting use of water to clean driveways and walkways.

The City of Bellevue, Washington, Storm and Surface Water Utility, in cooperation with local businesses, has conducted a series of workshops aimed at the prevention of nonpoint pollution for automotive, construction, landscaping, food, and building maintenance businesses. The city gives recognition to businesses that attend a workshop and prepare a water quality action program. Videos of the workshops and accompanying manuals are also produced by the City of Bellevue (Washington State Department of Ecology, 1992).

Excessive use of water contributes to numerous NPS pollution problems, including runoff from fertilized areas, OSDS drainfield failures, and sewage leaks. Water overuse may also contribute indirectly to NPS pollution problems: streams, rivers, and ground water may be excessively drawn down for water supply, decreasing their capacity to absorb pollutant runoff and upsetting their natural flow (Long Island Regional Planning Board, 1982; Maddaus, 1989). Additional information on water conservation is contained in the OSDS section of this chapter.

A 1980 EPA study identified 23 priority pollutants that are likely to be disposed of down household drains. Disposal of these chemicals into OSDS may impair OSDS function and contaminate ground water. Septic system cleaners are included in this category. There is little scientific evidence that septic system cleaners are effective in improving the function of septic systems. Many of the septic system cleaners contain chemicals such as chlorinated hydrocarbons, aromatic organic compounds, and acids and bases that may have an adverse affect on the biological treatment system and that may also pollute ground water. Many of these chemicals are also highly persistent in the ground water. Studies of ground-water contamination in New York and Connecticut have monitored these compounds in ground water and have found that (1) the septic system additives are not effective in improving the treatment systems and (2) the additives pass into ground water in relatively unaltered form (RIDEM, 1988).

Many States and local governments have adopted legislation prohibiting the use of septic system cleaning solvents, including the States of Maine and Delaware, the New Jersey Pinelands Regional Planning Commission, and several jurisdictions in Massachusetts. Rhode Island prohibits the disposal of acids or organic chemical solvents in septic systems and specifically discourages the use of septic tank cleaners. The State of Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection has taken the process one step further by banning the sale and use of cleaning solvents and also implementing the law through press releases, statewide surveys, direct manufacturer contact, and contact with the State Retail Merchants Association.

While street sweeping historically has been found to provide little benefit in reducing fines and pollutants associated with small particulates because of outdated sweeping equipment and irregular sweeping frequencies, litter control can be an effective means to improve the quality of urban runoff. Both the Baltimore and Long Island Nationwide Urban Runoff Program (NURP) projects found that litter control substantially influenced the quality of runoff from urban areas (Myers, 1989). Suggestions for controlling litter include:

• Encouraging businesses to keep the streets in front of their buildings free of litter;
• Developing local ordinances restricting or prohibiting food establishments from using disposable food packaging, especially plastics, styrofoam, and other floatables;
• Implementing "bottle bills" and mandatory recycling laws;
• Providing technical and financial assistance for establishing and maintaining community waste collection programs;
• Distributing public education materials on the benefits of recycling; and
• Developing "user-friendly" ways for recycling, such as curbside pick-up, voluntary container buy-back systems, and drop-off recycling centers.

Such programs can eliminate much of the floatable debris found in coastal waters and their tributaries. These programs involve volunteers who pick up trash along designated streambeds. Several successful programs similar to these are being implemented in Maryland, Alaska, Virginia, North Carolina, and Washington. The International Coastal Cleanup, the largest coastal cleanup effort in the country, is coordinated by the Center for Marine Conservation (CMC). With the use of data cards, plastic gloves, and trash bags, 130,152 volunteers cleared 4,347 miles of beaches and waterways of 2,878,913 pounds of trash during the 1991 cleanup effort (Younger and Hodge, 1992).

In addition to the visible benefits of such clean-up efforts, these programs offer valuable educational opportunities for volunteers and provide a significant amount of data on the amounts and types of debris being found in waterways. The sources of various types of debris can be traced as well. Debris can be traced to a specific company or organization based on labeling or marking. Where possible, CMC contacts these organizations about the finding of their debris, informs them of the problems caused by marine debris, and asks them to join the battle against the debris problem. From the 1990 CMC coastal clean-up effort, approximately 150 organizations were identified and contacted. As a result, the majority of organizations responded positively by printing educational "Do not litter" slogans on their products, and several launched internal investigations into current waste-handling procedures (Younger and Hodge, 1992).

Many of the problems associated with improper use of OSDS may be attributed to lack of knowledge on operation and maintenance of onsite systems. Training courses for installers and inspectors and education materials for homeowners on proper maintenance may reduce some of the incidences of OSDS failure.